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OBM Neurobiology

(ISSN 2573-4407)

OBM Neurobiology is an international peer-reviewed Open Access journal published quarterly online by LIDSEN Publishing Inc. By design, the scope of OBM Neurobiology is broad, so as to reflect the multidisciplinary nature of the field of Neurobiology that interfaces biology with the fundamental and clinical neurosciences. As such, OBM Neurobiology embraces rigorous multidisciplinary investigations into the form and function of neurons and glia that make up the nervous system, either individually or in ensemble, in health or disease. OBM Neurobiology welcomes original contributions that employ a combination of molecular, cellular, systems and behavioral approaches to report novel neuroanatomical, neuropharmacological, neurophysiological and neurobehavioral findings related to the following aspects of the nervous system: Signal Transduction and Neurotransmission; Neural Circuits and Systems Neurobiology; Nervous System Development and Aging; Neurobiology of Nervous System Diseases (e.g., Developmental Brain Disorders; Neurodegenerative Disorders).

OBM Neurobiology publishes a variety of article types (Original Research, Review, Communication, Opinion, Comment, Conference Report, Technical Note, Book Review, etc.). Although the OBM Neurobiology Editorial Board encourages authors to be succinct, there is no restriction on the length of the papers. Authors should present their results in as much detail as possible, as reviewers are encouraged to emphasize scientific rigor and reproducibility.

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Open Access Short Review

The Role of Nitrogen-Containing Compounds in Chemical Neuroscience: Implications for Drug Development

Ferydoon Khamooshi 1,* ORCID logo, Samaneh Doraji-Bonjar 2 ORCID logo, Ali Reza Modarresi-Alam 3 ORCID logo, Mohammad Hasan Mohammadi 4 ORCID logo

  1. Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Zabol, Zabol, Iran

  2. Department of Laboratory Medical Sciences, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran

  3. Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran

  4. Department of Pediatrics, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran

* Correspondence: Ferydoon Khamooshi ORCID logo

Academic Editor: Bart Ellenbroek

Received: May 03, 2025 | Accepted: December 16, 2025 | Published: January 04, 2026

OBM Neurobiology 2026, Volume 10, Issue 1, doi:10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2601318

Recommended citation: Khamooshi F, Doraji-Bonjar S, Modarresi-Alam AR, Mohammadi MH. The Role of Nitrogen-Containing Compounds in Chemical Neuroscience: Implications for Drug Development. OBM Neurobiology 2026; 10(1): 318; doi:10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2601318.

© 2026 by the authors. This is an open access article distributed under the conditions of the Creative Commons by Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is correctly cited.

Abstract

The study explores the crucial biological function of nitrogen in cyclic and acyclic structures with resonance potential, including tetrazoles, pyrroles, piperidines, and carbamates, within the realm of chemical neuroscience. It highlights the importance of these compounds for their biological properties and their ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to reach the central nervous system (CNS). The study emphasizes the necessity for neurochemical drugs, like morphine, to effectively cross the BBB, as modifications to their nitrogen structure can significantly impact their pharmacological effects. Additionally, the research explores the biochemical mechanisms of opioid and opioid-like analgesics, focusing on the impact of nitrogen heteroatoms and resonance on the stability of drug structures. The results highlight the importance of nitrogen-containing compounds in drug development, especially in pain management and other central nervous system applications. This document provides a thorough overview of the synthesis, characterization, and uses of different nitrogen heterocycles in medicinal chemistry.

Graphical abstract

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Keywords

Bioisosteric; resonance biochemistry; central nervous system; blood-brain barrier; tetrazole; carbamate; piperidine; pyrrole; amide

1. Introduction

The medicinal importance of 5- and 6-membered n-amine rings has been generally confirmed and reported in the pharmaceutical industry [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]. The contribution of amines to chemistry and pharmaceutical science is significant due to their biological properties, as seen in the structures of amino acids, glucosamine, adrenaline, dopamine, endorphin, urea, etc. Tautomeric character is one of the essential features in chemistry based on the resonance of heteroatoms [8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23]. The achievement of this valuable chemical feature in the derivatives of tetrazole, pyrrole, piperidine, and carbamates during our recent research confirms its importance in medicinal neurochemistry [8,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38]. Chemical synapses are the place of exchange and transmission of nerve messages. The function of chemical neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft is to activate chemical receptors. Chemical synapses are located in the central nervous system (CNS). The central nervous system itself is surrounded by lipid-rich tissue. To affect the synaptic space, drugs must be able to enter the central nervous system; to do so, they must also be able to penetrate the fatty tissue and cross the blood-brain barrier. Myelin is an insulating layer or sheath that forms around nerves, including those in the brain and spinal cord. It is made up of protein and fatty substances. This myelin sheath allows electrical impulses to be transmitted quickly and efficiently along nerve cells. The myelin sheath is a sleeve wrapped around each nerve cell (neuron). It is a protective layer of fats (lipids) and proteins that covers the central part of the body of a neuron, called the axon (Figure 1) [39,40].

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Figure 1 Myelin and nerve structure.

Heterocycles are crucial in the development of drugs for the nervous system due to their distinctive structural and chemical characteristics. These compounds are widely used to treat neurological and psychiatric conditions (Table 1). The following outlines the primary reasons for their use [41,42,43,44,45,46,47].

Table 1 Examples of Neuropsychiatric Drugs with Five-Membered Heterocyclic Rings Containing Nitrogen [†].

2. Structural Characteristics of Heterocycles

2.1 Structural Variety

Heterocycles are cyclic compounds that include non-carbon atoms such as nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. This structural diversity facilitates the creation of molecules with a wide range of pharmacological effects.

2.2 Chemical Resilience

Heterocyclic rings are typically stable and can endure the physiological conditions present in the body.

2.3 Receptor Interaction Potential

The inclusion of heteroatoms, such as nitrogen, allows these compounds to effectively engage with receptors, enzymes, and other biological entities within the nervous system.

3. Justifications for Utilizing Heterocycles in Nervous System Medications

3.1 Structural Resemblance to Neurotransmitters

Numerous heterocycles share structural similarities with neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, GABA, and acetylcholine. This resemblance enables them to function as either agonists or antagonists at these receptors. For instance, benzodiazepines like diazepam, which feature heterocyclic rings, produce calming and anti-anxiety effects by binding to GABA-A receptors.

3.2 Capacity to Penetrate the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

Heterocycles often exhibit lipophilic (fat-soluble) properties, allowing them to traverse the blood-brain barrier and cross the central nervous system. An example is tricyclic antidepressants like amitriptyline, which contain heterocyclic structures and can easily infiltrate the brain.

3.3 Broad Pharmacological Effects

Heterocycles can interact with various receptors, enzymes, and ion channels in the nervous system, making them valuable in treating a diverse array of neurological disorders. For example, antipsychotic medications such as olanzapine, which include heterocyclic rings, target dopamine and serotonin receptors.

Selectivity in central nervous system (CNS) drugs is a complex challenge. The goal is to design a molecule that simultaneously satisfies two requirements: 1) effective penetration of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and 2) selective binding to the pathogenic target in the brain, without affecting similar receptors, channels, or enzymes elsewhere in the body, leading to off-target effects and side effects. Table 2 shows examples of how innovative design based on nitrogen heterocycles can help solve the challenge of penetration and [48].

Table 2 Clinical candidates and new drugs: Clinical interpretation of penetration and selectivity.

4. Result and Discussion

Drugs and chemical compounds must cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to affect the nervous system. The blood-brain barrier has a phospholipid (fat) membrane, and drugs and fat-soluble substances pass through this barrier more easily and effectively. Therefore, a drug or chemical compound that is soluble in fat has a stronger and more effective pharmacological effect. The amine group, or tertiary form of nitrogen, has a significant impact on the analgesic properties of morphine. By changing it and creating nitrogen, or the quaternary ammonium form, the analgesic properties of morphine are significantly reduced because it cannot enter the central nervous system. Therefore, it is important not to alter the body’s natural pH due to the biochemical effects of amine drugs on the nervous system. Simple amines are polar compounds, but resonant amines, especially cyclic and aromatic amines, such as pyridine, have relatively low polarity. The more resonances there are in the structure, the lower the overall polarity of the structure due to the dispersion and neutralization of the dipole moment in the structure [8].

Amino acids are the building blocks of protein in the body. Each amino acid is made up of a central alpha carbon atom, or Cα, and attached to this central atom are four molecular structures, also known as functional groups: a carboxyl group (-COOH), an amino group (-NH2), a single hydrogen atom (H), and a substituent (R or H). This is the general structure of all amino acids (Figure 2) [49,50,51].

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Figure 2 General structure of amino acid isomers.

The resonance phenomenon in nitrogen-containing heterocycles (such as tetrazole or pyrrole) is directly related to reduce local polarity and improved penetration of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the central nervous system (CNS). This occurs through a uniform distribution of electrical charge across the ring (Figure 3) [52]. Amino acids are divided into two groups: acidic and basic amino acids. Acidic amino acids have acidic side chains, specifically, they contain carboxylic acid groups that lose protons and take on a negative charge. Acidic amino acids are also naturally hydrophilic amino acids. This means they love water rather than hydrophobic amino acids. Basic amino acids are amino acids that have basic side chains containing nitrogen, similar to the base ammonia. Basic amino acids take on a positive charge. Naturally, basic amino acids are also polar amino acids and, like acidic amino acids, are hydrophilic. The importance of the structures of N-cyclic resonance amines, such as tetrazoles and non-cyclic ones, such as amides and carbamates, lies in their similarity to amino acids in producing acidic charge and proton (Figure 4). Also, due to the lack of charge and resonance, they have less polarity and greater biological stability, allowing them to pass through lipid membranes. More importantly, from a biochemical point of view, the cyclic structures of tetrazole derivatives exhibit pH properties similar to those of carboxylic acids, which are suitable for biological and pharmaceutical applications [41,51].

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Figure 3 Uniform distribution of electrical charge across the tetrazole ring.

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Figure 4 Some structures of cyclic and acyclic pharmaceutical N-amine compounds.

5. Medicinal Chemistry

The pharmacological significance of this research lies in the critical role of nitrogen-containing compounds in the development of drugs targeting the central nervous system (CNS). The study examines cyclic and acyclic nitrogen-containing structures, such as tetrazoles, pyruvates, and piperidines. It emphasizes that these compounds are crucial for reaching the CNS due to their biological properties and potential to penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In addition, the research investigates the biochemical mechanisms of opioid and opioid-like analgesic drugs. It explains the influence of nitrogen atoms and delocalized structures on the biochemical stability of the drug structure. The research also points to the importance of amine groups in drugs and their influence on the pharmacological properties, especially in the case of morphine, and shows that changes in the nitrogen structure can significantly reduce the pharmacological effects. Finally, this research emphasizes the importance of heteroatoms' tautomeric properties in medicinal chemistry and neurochemistry and shows that these properties can help improve the biological and pharmacological activities of compounds [8,51,53].

6. Pharmaceutical Development

The results of this research could help develop new drugs for the treatment of neurological diseases by identifying and optimizing nitrogen-containing compounds. In particular, emphasizing the importance of cyclic and non-cyclic nitrogen structures, such as tetrazoles and piperidines, could lead to the identification of new drugs with better biological properties (Figure 4). The research shows that changes in the nitrogen structure can have significant pharmacological effects, especially in the case of drugs such as morphine, which are used to manage pain. By better understanding the tautomeric properties and biochemical stability of these compounds, it is possible to design drugs that readily cross the blood-brain barrier and have more effective therapeutic effects. In addition, the research results could help develop new drugs specifically designed to cross fat tissues and penetrate the CNS, thus leading to improved treatments for neurological disorders and chronic pain [51,53]. Resonance spreads the electron density around the nitrogen atoms. This causes the molecule to have a less momentary dipolar state, rather than concentrating the charge at a single point (making it highly polar). Less polar (lipophilic) molecules cross the lipid bilayer of the BBB endothelial cell membrane more easily. Comparison of resonance vs. non-resonance tetrazoles: A hypothetical non-resonance tetrazole analog (imagined as a structure with fixed, localized bonds) would have a higher polarity and thus be less permeable to the CNS. An essential point in drug design is that reducing polarity alone is not enough. Successful design must strike a delicate balance between lipophilicity (for BBB crossing) and aqueous solubility (for absorption and distribution). Resonance is one way to adjust this balance. The next frontiers of central nervous system (CNS) drug discovery based on nitrogen-containing compounds are moving towards targeting protein-protein interactions (PPIs) using advanced computational methods and novel medicinal chemistry strategies such as prodrugs [54,55,56].

7. Conclusions

The research emphasizes the critical role of nitrogen-containing compounds in the development of pharmaceuticals, particularly those targeting the central nervous system (CNS). It highlights the importance of amines due to their biological properties and their structural similarities to amino acids, which are essential for producing pharmacologically active compounds. The document provides a comprehensive overview of various biochemical and pharmaceutical studies, focusing on the synthesis and application of nitrogen heterocycles, especially 5-membered rings, which are vital for the development of opioid-like drugs. Furthermore, it underscores the significance of the tautomeric forms, which are crucial in medicinal chemistry and neurochemistry, enhancing the stability and efficacy of drug structures. Overall, this research contributes valuable insights into the biochemical mechanisms and clinical implications of nitrogen-containing compounds in drug development, particularly for pain management and other CNS-related applications.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the Zabol University, Sistan and Baluchestan University, Zabol University of Medical Science, and Zahedan University of Medical Science.

Author Contributions

Prof. Dr. Ferydoon Khamooshi: Research admin, Data analysis and Editor. Samaneh Doraji-Bonjar Clinical Specialist: Data collection, Writing and Editing. Prof. Dr. Ali Reza Modarresi-Alam: Scientific advisor. Prof. Dr. Mohammad Hasan Mohammadi: Scientific advisor.

Funding

This study did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing Interests

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest in this article.

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