Bridging Togo’s Energy Gap: Renewable Energy Potentials, Policy Challenges, and Strategic Pathways for Sustainable Development

Nanimpo Kansongue ¹, Stephen Vertigans ^2,3, James Njuguna ^1,2,3,*

1. School of Computing, Engineering and Technologies, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, United Kingdom

2. National Subsea Centre, 3 International Avenue, Dyce, Aberdeen, AB21 0BH, Scotland

3. School of Law and Social Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, United Kingdom

* Correspondence: James Njuguna

Academic Editor: Tek Tjing Lie

Special Issue: Energy Management: Economic, Social and Ecological Aspects

Received: December 22, 2024 | Accepted: July 21, 2025 | Published: October 13, 2025

Journal of Energy and Power Technology 2025, Volume 7, Issue 4, doi:10.21926/jept.2504014

Recommended citation: Kansongue N, Vertigans S, Njuguna J. Bridging Togo’s Energy Gap: Renewable Energy Potentials, Policy Challenges, and Strategic Pathways for Sustainable Development. Journal of Energy and Power Technology 2025; 7(4): 014; doi:10.21926/jept.2504014.

© 2025 by the authors. This is an open access article distributed under the conditions of the Creative Commons by Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is correctly cited.

1. Introduction

With an estimated population of 9,515,236 [1], Togo is one of the sub-Saharan African countries and remains among the poorest and least developed nations in the world. Togo has a per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of 923.48 US dollars in 2024 [2]. Approximately 43% of its inhabitants lack access to electricity-one of the key resources for development in today's world [3]. About 76% of Togo's energy supply comes from biomass sources (firewood, charcoal, vegetable waste etc.), 20% from petroleum products, and only 4% from electricity, with a total energy consumption of 22,943 GWh [4,5,6]. Togo has no proven oil or natural gas reserves and imports all its petroleum from Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, and Nigeria through an interconnection network. This energy deficit slows down economic activities and hinders the country's development [7]. As of 2022, over 56% of the Togolese population lived in rural areas and lacked access to basic services such as healthcare, education, drinking water, and electricity [8,9]. In Togo, nearly 82% of rural households rely solely on the traditional 'Three Stones' stove for cooking with wood. The proportion of the population using improved stoves- a type of cooking device designed to use wood or charcoal more efficiently and with less pollution was 6.55% in 2010 and is estimated to have reached 27% by 2020 [10]. Per capita energy consumption remains exceptionally low, at approximately 149 kWh, compared to thousands of kWh in Western countries [11]. Despite this energy shortfall, both literature and empirical observations indicate that Togo has significant potential for renewable energy. However, it continues to struggle with establishing a sustainable energy strategy [11]. Therefore, it is essential to develop and harness Togo's renewable energy potential to expand energy access and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

To date, 76% of greenhouse gas emissions in the world are attributed to human energy consumption, including transportation, electricity and heat production, building operations, manufacturing and construction, fugitive emissions, and other fuel combustion [12,13], which brings about climate change and global warming. Fossil fuels remain the dominant energy source, producing nearly 33 billion tonnes (Gt) of carbon dioxide annually: 44% from coal, 34% from oil, and 21% from gas [14]. Energy poverty is a major issue: 2.6 billion people of the world population lack access to clean cooking fuels in 2019 - without urgent attention to this issue, about 72% of the global population will have access to clean cooking fuels and technologies by 2030 [15]. Asians and sub-Saharan Africa, including Togo, are the most affected, as shown in Figure 1, exposing them to indoor air pollution and causing approximately 3.8 million deaths globally annually according to the World Health Organization [16].

Figure 1 Population Without Access to Clean Cooking in the Stated Policies and Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenarios. Source: IEA estimates based on historical data. (In the STEPS, some 2.1 billion people remain without access to clean cooking in 2030; reaching universal access by 2030 will require significant acceleration of progress).

These adverse consequences caused by the lack of access to clean fuels are a global concern, and work is being done by many nations to address them by developing other sources of energy to meet demands.

According to the Public–Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility (PPIAF¹), Togo faced a crisis in 2006 due to a decline in hydrology and a significant increase in energy demand. This affected the country negatively and made the government realise that developing the energy sector would boost economic development. To address this, the government reconstructed the electricity company, reorganised its internal operations, and strengthened its capacity through private sector involvement [18]. As a result, ContourGlobal (an international power company) was selected to design, construct, and operate a 100 MW "tri-fuel" power plant, which became fully functional in 2010 and generates an estimated 780 gigawatt-hours (GWh) of electricity per year [5,18]. Since then, the government has entered a 25-year concession and purchase agreement with Contour Global, which allows them to sell its electricity generated to CEET.

Despite the positive impact of this action plan, the lack of adequate energy infrastructure and the high electricity demand continue to hinder economic activities in Togo. Togo has access to various renewable energy sources, including solar, hydropower, wind, and biomass, amongst others. Renewable energy accounts for 9.74% of the country's total production, while the thermal sources contribute approximately 38.63%, generated by CEB, ContourGlobal, Kekeli Efficient Power, and CEET [19].

1.1 Problem Statement

Togo continues to face persistent energy challenges, including limited electricity access, high dependence on energy imports, and underutilization of its abundant renewable resources. Despite efforts by national stakeholders and international partners, domestic energy production remains insufficient to meet rising demand—particularly in rural and underserved areas. High production costs, weak regulatory frameworks, and limited private sector participation further constrain progress.

This study is driven by the urgent need to identify sustainable, cost-effective, and locally adaptable energy solutions. Through a critical assessment of barriers to renewable energy adoption and an analysis of global best practices, it provides actionable insights for policy reform, investment strategies, and technological innovation. It also highlights the socio-economic benefits of renewable energy, including improved agricultural productivity, job creation, and enhanced energy security.

This study provides a comprehensive overview of global developments in renewable energy and critically examines their relevance to Togo's energy landscape. By comparing international trends with Togo's current context, the study identifies key gaps in the literature and practice that must be addressed to accelerate the country's energy transition. It also offers targeted policy recommendations to support the adoption and scaling of renewable energy technologies.

Ultimately, the study aligns with Togo's national development priorities and supports global commitments such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy. Its findings aim to inform policymakers, investors, and development partners working to build a more resilient, inclusive, and sustainable energy future for Togo.

2. Methodology

The study adopts a pragmatic approach, which is focused on addressing issues in a practical and realistic manner rather than relying solely on theoretical considerations. It builds upon existing studies while incorporating available approaches and data to understand and address problems, rather than adhering to a single methodology. The study participants included occupations in the communities, such as indigenous farmers, fishermen, and artisans, as well as key stakeholders in the energy sector, policymakers, private organizations, and financial institutions, amongst others. A mixed-method approach is employed in this study, allowing for the integration of different worldviews, assumptions, methods, and types of data collection and analysis. Data collection for this study was based on primary, secondary, and tertiary sources.

• The primary data included interview notes, field notes, and illustrations, gathered through interviews, questionnaires, field observations, and other methods.
• Secondary data was obtained from journal publications, conference proceedings, national and international standards, and reports from governmental and non-governmental. These were collected through desktop research, literature reviews, workshops, and conferences.
• Tertiary data was sourced from archival databases.

The questions used in this study were as follows:

• Do you have access to energy for your daily life and activities?
• Do you know what form of renewable energy is generated in Togo?
• What are the potential renewable energy sources in Togo?
• What type of renewable energy would you recommend and why?
• Are there any issues caused by the current energy in place, such as pollution and health issues?
• What are the existing laws that promote the use or development of renewable energy?

• What are the benefits or disadvantages of these existing laws?
• Can you make suggestions for improvement, if any?

• How can policymakers address the absence of framework regulations that govern the energy sector?
• Should renewable energy be prioritized? If so, why?
• Should renewable energy research be promoted? If so, why?
• What are the best practices that can be identified within the energy sector?
• What actions could be taken by policymakers to encourage wider adoption of renewable energy in Togo for sustainable development?
• What actions could be taken by other important key players?

To analyze the collected data, the study employed both qualitative and quantitative methods. Thematic coding was used to analyze data obtained through interviews. This involved marking key points with a series of codes using a data-led grounded theory approach. This method entailed extracting data from the text and grouping similar concepts to make the data more manageable and meaningful.

3. Current Supply and Demand

The total electrical energy produced and purchased in 2021 was estimated at 697.37 GWh and 845.76 GWh respectively, with imports accounting for 54.86% of the electricity need [3,19]. There has been a decrease in importation since 2015 where imports accounted for 98.09% of the electricity need, 69.35% in 2018, and 64.52% in 2019. The total energy produced and purchased in 2015 was estimated at 1,094.0 GWh [20] and 1,258.25 GWh in 2018. According to CEET [21] annual report, 872.63 GWh was purchased against 385.62 GWh produced between CEET (12.23 GWh) and ContourGlobal Togo (373.39 GWh). Figure 2 below shows the electricity production of the two main producers CEET and CGT against the total electricity purchased.

Figure 2 Electricity Production of CEET and CGT vs. Total Electricity Purchased (Adopted and Modified from [3,5,21,22]).

As seen in Figure 2, electricity production in Togo is mainly done through CEET and CGT. The production from CGT comes from thermal energy, while that of CEET comes from an energy mix that includes thermal, hydropower, and solar. The chart illustrates a steady decline in CEET's electricity production from 2016 to 2020, followed by a slight increase in 2021, attributed to CGT's temporary use of CEET's production units. In contrast, CGT's electricity output declined between 2016 and 2018 but showed consistent growth from 2019 to 2021. Despite these improvements in domestic generation, overall production remains significantly below national demand, forcing Togo to rely heavily on electricity imports.

A key driver of this dependency is the high cost of domestic electricity production—estimated at 177.86 FCFA/kWh in 2020—compared to the much lower import cost of approximately 53 FCFA/kWh. This cost disparity, coupled with limited investment in alternative energy sources and a rapidly growing population, continues to strain the energy sector.

As detailed by Kansongue et al. [23], the imbalance between production and imports has persisted over the years. Despite efforts by stakeholders such as CEET, CEB, the Ministry of Mines and Energy, ContourGlobal, and private renewable energy firms, energy access remains inadequate. Load-shedding remains a common practice to manage supply-demand gaps. The adoption of renewable energy remains minimal but is essential for expanding Togo's energy supply and achieving long-term energy security.

According to the Togolese agency for rural electricity and renewable energy, approximately 1,600 GWh/year power is produced from the 230 MW installed generating capacity. In addition, they added to achieve the 2030 vision (100% electricity to all) approximatively 202 MW of power will be required. Based on statistics, the government needs approximately 995 billion FCFA in investment. As an alternative, they will have to mobilize an average of approximately 83 billion FCFA per year over 12 years to achieve universal access by 2030. This is approximately $142 million per year or four times more than the average government investment in electrification development per year [24]. The share of thermal power produced was approximately 4,038,764 kWh in 2021, that of hydropower was 4,042,009 kWh, and that of renewable energy, specifically solar, was 285,256 kWh [3]. There are two reasons for the decrease in electricity production over the years: the extension of the electrical grid and the closure of some isolated plants. The closing of some power plants has been due to the higher cost of producing electricity compared to importing. A few examples include power plants in Mango (GAY 138, a power plants of nominal power of 1,024 kW), Kpekpleme (180 kVA and GE 311 kVA, 144 kW and 248.8 kW, respectively), Kougnohou (Cummins 311 kVA, 248.8 kW), Kabole (Cummins 400 kVA, 320 kW), and Guerrin-Kouka (Perkins 400 kVA and Cummins 400 kVA, 320 kW each). In addition, several broken power plants have been left without repairing them, such as Sulzer (Sulzer No. 1 and Sulzer No. 2, nominal power of 8,000 kW each), SDMO GE1A of 985 kW, and SDMO GE2A of 985 kW. As discussed above, the cost of production of 1 kWh in 2020 was estimated at 177.86 FCFA, while that of import was about 53 FCFA/kWh. The increase in demand is on the ascendency, as with the extension of the grid, new clients get energy, and a few industrial big consumers have also been set up, such as Steel Cube in Kara, ATP in Davie, Manumetal in Davie, and CIMCO in Lomé. To meet demand, Togo is forced to import most of its energy from the top three West African countries in total primary energy supply, as shown in Figure 3 below, namely Ghana, Côte D'Ivoire, and Nigeria [3,5,21,25].

Figure 3 Top Five West African Countries in Total Primary Energy Supply in Percentage. Source: Adopted and modified from [3,5,21,25].

The importation from Ghana was mostly from hydropower, but in recent years, this has been a mix of hydropower and thermal. The importation from Nigeria is purely thermal. A total of 845,76 GWh in 2021 was purchased. Even though Togo has significant renewable energy potential [10], such as the solar, wind, and hydroelectric power resources, that could be developed to implement a nationwide sustainable energy system.

The rate of access to electricity in Togo has increased from 35.81% in 2016 to 57% in 2021, as shown in Figure 4(a) below, but with large disparities between regions, as shown in Figure 4(b), as well as between urban and rural areas [3,6,21].

Figure 4 (a): Evolution of the Rate of Access to Electricity per Year in Percentage (Adopted and Modified from [3,5,21,22]). (b): Rate of Access to Electricity by Region in Percentage – Year 2016 vs. 2021 (Adopted and Modified from [3,26]).

Comparing the electricity production in 2021 to that of 2016 (Figure 2), production has decreased, while the access rate has increased (Figure 4(b)). This increase in access is primarily due to higher electricity imports and the extension of the electrical grid.

As shown in Figure 4(b), the rate of access to electricity in Lomé (the capital city of Togo, located in the south in the Maritime region) was approximately 98.55% in 2021, while the rest of the Maritime region had an access rate of 73.89%. In comparison, in 2016, the access rate in Lomé was about 92.47%, and in the rest of the Maritime region, it was only 19.76%. The high access rate in Lomé can be attributed to three main factors: it is the capital city, it is the most populated city in Togo, and it has more developed infrastructure. The increase in electricity access has been made possible largely through the expansion of the power grid, which has enabled more people to connect to electricity. The rate of access to electricity in Sokode, the second most populated city of Togo located in the Central region, is slightly lower than that of Kara, situated in the Kara region. This is because Kara is considered the second city of Togo in terms of infrastructure after Lomé. The second national public university is also based in Kara. This city represents the region of the current president, who has been in power since 2005, taking over after the death of his father, who was in power for 38 years. The increase in the rate of access to electricity is mostly due to the extension of the power grid and a few solar installations.

The Savanes region, located in the north, has the lowest rate of access to electricity (22.39% in 2021 and only 11.2% in 2016). Most of the people living in this region do not have access to the electrical grid, and the rural access rate is about 8%. The increase in the rate of access from 2016 to 2020 was possible due to the increase in solar kit installations for homes. The state has promised the construction of a new power line of 240 km that will improve electricity supply in the north. This power line will connect the localities of Kara, Mango, and Dapaong, located in the northern part of the country, with an expected capacity of 161 kV.

4. Renewable Energy in Togo

Togo has a lot of renewable energy available, such as solar, hydropower, wind, and biomass. Kansongue et al., [27] presented an overview of the Togolese energy sector. Togo's total renewable energy production in the energy mix accounts for 9.74% of the total production, while the thermal sources of production are estimated at 38.63% between CEB, ContourGlobal, Kekeli Efficient Power, and CEET [19]. Togo is still dependent, with imports accounting for 54.86% of the electrical energy need in 2021 [19].

4.1 Rationale for Renewable Energy Development

Today, renewable energy is recognized as part and parcel of the energy supply. For the past two decades, its consumption has been encouraged in all countries to promote a sustainable environment [28,29]. Many types of renewable energy are being considered around the world. Biodiesel for example is emerging as one of the most favourable energy sources in the globe to bridge the gap of increasing demand of Petro-diesel [30]. Mataghare et al. added it may be due to attractive features including enhancement in engine life, engine lubrication, flash point, cetane number, and reducing wear and emission of harmful gases. Additionally, in the last few decades, the use of non-food plant biomass, particularly agricultural residues such as sugarcane bagasse, corn stover, poplar wood, wheat and rice straws, are attractive for production of biofuels, platform chemicals and other compounds according to Raut and Bhagat [31]. Renewable energy development is further elaborated in the follow up sub-section. Kansongue et al., [27] provides insight on the need, goals and target plans to achieve 100% electrification rate by 2030. Rural electrification rate is exceptionally low and increased from 3% in 2008 to 8% in 2020 [6,32].

The government is working towards a strategic roadmap for 2021 to 2025. As part of this, a 50 MW solar power plant has been constructed in the Central region and there has been an extension of the power grid to some areas within Togo [3,24,33]. Hydro generation project is also being planned with the provision of 120,000 connections through extension and 150,000 connections through intensification. The aim for 2026 to 2030 is to accelerate the growth of renewable energy generation as well as the extension of the grid and complete the densification with the following results [24]:

• 45 MW solar and hydro generation.
• 110,000 connections through extension.
• 170,000 connections through intensification.

All these projects and plans require a lot of technical assistance as well as financing.

4.2 Alignment with Sustainable Development Goals

The commitment of Togo in alignment with the SDGs has been shown since the adoption of its 2015–2018 and 2018–2022 national development plans, which incorporate SDGs. The plans are looking at the current conditions of sectors such as infrastructure (transportation, communication, energy), productive systems (agriculture, artisan, tourism and cultural, commercial, financial, improvement of the business climate), human development and social inclusion, and increases in environmental management (e.g., natural resource management, sustainable forest management, the fight against climate change). As part of these plans, the government ambition is to make Togo an economically middle-income country and socially and democratically solid and stable, united, and open to the world. Its vision to become an emerging country by 2030 incorporates five long-term objectives [32,34]:

• Reduce poverty.
• Become a middle-income country.
• Reach the stage of a newly industrialized country.
• Strengthen national unity and consolidate the democratic process.
• Ensure sustainable management of the environment, fight against climate change, sustainably manage disasters, and promote land use planning.

To achieve these goals, the Togolese government is working on improving many sectors. This includes the energy sector with different planned projects discussed above with the ambitious goal to achieve universal access to electricity by 2030.

5. Factors Influencing Renewable Energy Penetration into Rural and Remote Areas

5.1 Drivers and Inhibitors

Compared with other countries, Togo, despite its huge potential of renewable energy resources, is very low on the ladder in terms of the future deployments of renewable energy technologies. Figures 5(a) and 5(b) below show the percentage generated per country based on installed solar and wind generation capacity of 10,431 MW and 6,479 MW respectively. In both Figures 5(a) and 5(b), Togo's percentage of installed solar and wind generation capacity is considered minimal and listed within "rest of Africa". Figure 5(a) shows that within West Africa, Senegal has made greater progress.

Figure 5 (a): Installed Solar Generation Capacity, Africa 2020. Adopted and modified from [33,35]. (b): Installed Wind Generation Capacity, Africa 2020. Adopted and modified from [33,35].

As shown in Figures 5(a) and 5(b), South Africa is by far the leader in terms of installed solar and wind and third when it comes to hydropower generation [33]. However, Togo does have some hydropower installed and ranks 31st among African countries in installed hydropower generation capacity, as shown in Figure 6 below, while neighbouring Ghana ranks 11^th.

Figure 6 Installed Hydropower Generation Capacity, Africa 2020 Source: IRENA [33]; IRENA [35]. Note: Hydropower includes pumped storage.

This is because there are very few adopted rules and regulations within the energy sector that help or favour the population, few standardized power purchase agreements (PPAs) and power purchase tariffs, and very few incentive measures in taxation and the energy sector is not liberalized to enable and attract investment.

An important factor to note is that development can only be made possible, if necessary, efforts are made by policymakers to develop enabling frameworks to spur investment and facilitate market development through sound policies and regional cooperation. In addition, Shah and Solangi's [36] study revealed that policy implications are key to a swift transition to a renewable energy system in Pakistan, and without political will, renewable energy development will be difficult. This was also encouraged by Mugisha et al.'s [37] study, which looked at Kenya, Rwanda, and Ethiopia in East Africa. They found that, in the three countries, local private investors have less involvement in the off-grid solar business due to the lack of incentives and high upfront costs essentially due to insufficient funds in rural electrification program. By reviewing Castalia's [38] study, their study found that Cambodia's success story is a combination of good policies that focused on the standardized approach of mini-grids, appropriate tariff regulations that evaluated every power provider individually depending on its cost, and the availability of effective financing mechanisms to private investors. They also listed awareness, availability, and affordability as key drivers of the widespread adoption of off-grid solar technologies in emerging markets [37]. This was supported by Kizilcec and Parikh [39], who found that most policy recommendations from reviewed manuscripts focused on improving the affordability and accessibility of good-quality solar home systems (SHSs) for households, which could be done by developing a stronger regulatory framework for SHSs. Other drivers included sustainability, the introduction of renewable energy laws such as feed-in tariffs, and community inclusion. For example, the speed-up of renewable energy deployment in South Africa in the past few years was partly spurred by its goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

However, despite the role played by the introduction of these laws, renewable energy development still faces many barriers globally, including [40,41,42]:

• Limited policy interest and investment levels, inadequate regulatory frameworks, and technical barriers.
• Lack of knowledge transfer to indigenous population to accelerate the development of renewable energy.
• Political risk: this is classified as a top concern when it comes to investing in Africa.
• The high capital cost of renewable energy technologies compared to firewood and charcoal.
• Lack of consumer awareness of the benefits and opportunities of renewable energy solutions.

Despite its abundant resources, Togo is behind some African countries, such as Senegal in West Africa, when it comes to the use and development of renewable energy. Apart from hydropower electricity, accounting for 78.82% of its total installed capacity (four-fifths of which is imported from Ghana), Togo's renewable energy sources practically account for 9.74% in 2021 [19,43] and Togo still depends on imported energy from its neighbours for its energy needs.

Although the use of renewable energy is greatly advancing and the technologies are becoming more and more affordable, the use of this source of energy is still struggling for development in many countries, including Togo. Looking at the development so far in Africa and other developing countries, Togo has significant renewable energy potential and could make good use of it. Introducing the use of solar home systems and solar water heaters just as Kenya and Tanzania did is not a major task for a country like Togo. This could help some homes, small-scale businesses, and hotels in off-grid areas of Togo have access to energy, run their businesses, and improve the living standards of the society, as seen in the case of Kenya and Tanzania. Thus, with strong enough will, Togo could make it happen, as seen in other countries such as Burkina Faso with development of solar PV modules; Congo and Cameroon with the development of locally made small-scale hydro power plants in remote areas; South Africa and Morocco with the introduction of Policies and regulatory frameworks to promote investment and development in renewable energy and awareness raised on its use and benefits in the country; and Nigeria which promotes an increase in local content in solar manufacturing and assembly by offering a long-term low-interest credit on renewable energy products as part of the COVID-19 pandemic response by launching the Solar Power Naija project in December 2020 as part of its sustainability plan with a goal to give access to 25 million individuals through 5 million new household connections in rural areas [44,45]. However, it is worth nothing that, despite these improvements in the development of renewable energy, there is still a lot to be done to make a significant difference within these countries.

In all, based on a literature review and research field trip, the identified barriers in the development of renewable sources of energy with respect to Togo are as follows:

• Lack of government interest and support to promote the need for renewable energy development. This was an issue raised by private companies in interview discussions during the November 2015 field visit. They mentioned the reluctance of the government to support their initiatives as they experience a lot of resistance to the forward movement of their project, which is a handicap to their businesses' prospects.
• Lack of policy intervention and inadequate regulatory frameworks in place to promote private investment in renewable energy technologies. Discussions with NGOs and private organisations indicated that the energy sector has no specific rules and regulations in place for renewable energy. This does not help because investors are expecting that governments put in place some sort of subsidies that will encourage installation and operation of different projects.
• The high cost of tariffs on renewable energy equipment. This does not help investors, as no subsidies exist to lower capital and operating costs.
• Lack of awareness of renewable energy technologies and knowledge transfer from developed to emerging economies. Training key personnel on the functionality of renewable energy technologies will be key for development in all stages of the project. During field visit discussions with local communities, some indigenous people mentioned they were not even aware of some of the features renewable energy technologies could offer, such as solar lamps and batteries for charging phones, which would make communication a lot easier for people living in remote areas. Raising awareness about renewable energy will help the community have the knowledge required to make decisions on the use of renewable energy technologies.
• Lack of research to show renewable energy's potentials and identify factors that will help its development.
• Lack of appropriate technology transfer from developed economies.
• Hearsay on the level of corruption involved for personal private businesses from key actors.

5.2 Urban–Rural Differences

In Togo, most urban areas have more access to electricity compared to rural areas. Many people rely on lamps and biomass energy for their lighting and cooking needs. Moreover, urban areas have a lot of infrastructure and opportunities, causing migration of the youth to urban areas in search of better opportunities and living conditions. On the other hand, rural areas are endowed with a lot of land, rivers, and space for livestock, poultry, and other farming. Making use of these assets could solve many socio-economic issues. However, due to the lack of storage, processing, and transformation units, farmers have no choice but to sell most of their products at low prices to customers who come from urban areas. The development of renewable energy could help mitigate the urban–rural differences.

5.3 Factors Influencing High Dependency on the International Market

Apart from biomass produced in Togo, a small amount of renewable energy (mostly solar) and hydroelectric plant in Nangbeto (managed by CEB), all commercial energy currently consumed in Togo is imported. Permission has been granted for exploration of offshore crude oil and natural gas, but, to date, no commercial discoveries have been made [46]. Therefore, Togo has no choice but to import energy from Ghana, Côte D'Ivoire, and Nigeria, with a total of 845.76 GWh imported in 2021 [3] to meet demand. Part of this is done by CEB importing energy itself through interconnections with Ghana and Nigeria (VRA and TCN) and generating at the Nangbeto hydro (65 MW) it co-owns with Benin (due to the existing equal share agreement between Togo and Benin), ECG Ghana, and SNPT (Société Nouvelle des Phosphates du Togo) and through the ContourGlobal IPP of 100 MW [5,46].

5.4 Competing Interest Based on Types of Energy Sources

The competition among the types of renewable energy in Togo is seen in the number of people showing interest in a specific energy type. So far, the interest in solar energy development has been advancing greatly due to the simplicity of the technology as well as the cost associated with it. With the lack of connection to the electrical grid, this type of technology is also most suitable and easiest to install in rural areas [47]. Nearly all the solar technology is imported [48] from China, Germany, Italy, and France, with trade agreements or dependencies from the providers regarding maintenance of the equipment. However, the government has introduced some tax incentives on these products, coupled with subsidizing the equipment for owners to encourage its acquisition. Aside from solar energy, most other renewable energy types require high investment due to the cost of the technology, or the resources available are considerably low.

5.5 Incentives

There have been a few developments relating to taxation, namely [49,50]:

• Law n° 2018-010 of August 8, 2018, relating to the promotion of the production of electricity based on renewable energy sources. This law exempts taxes and customs duties on renewable energy equipment as well as company tax, professional tax, property tax, and VAT for approved off-grid solar companies. It gives priority to renewable energy development and allows an increase in the national electrification rate by opening development to the private sector under state supervision while guaranteeing the quality of the installations. It encourages organisations to purchase equipment.
• The finance laws of 2020 and 2021 relating to tax exoneration on customs duties and VAT on the import of new electric and hybrid vehicles, which will be applied for a duration of five years.

There have been policies put in place by the government since 2019 to help companies distribute renewable energy technologies at a subsidized price. This subsidizes the cost of a solar kit by 2,000 FCFA (about $3.80) per month for a period of 36 months for any household that acquires a solar kit. The only condition is that the household make its share of the monthly payment for the duration of the period. Renewable energy development in Togo has helped with job creation. Based on the electrification program, about 20 shops were opened in 2017. About 700 local jobs were created during construction of the 50 MW solar plant financed by the IRENA-ADFD project, with an additional 120 direct and indirect jobs in operations [33]. With the planned projects, these numbers have yet to increase, and there has been training of some personnel (50 engineers, 100 experts, and 3,000 technicians) in relation to that. All these factors will improve the socio-economic conditions of the country, with further achievement if renewable energy development increases like that of many other countries.

6. Renewable Energy Development: Global Context

The need for energy is a key driver of economic development and a necessity in shaping the landscape of the global economic market in all aspects of life, including people's well-being, health education, and commercial activities [51]. As a result of this, coupled with the issues associated with the use of fossil fuels—such as rising energy costs, shortage, pollution of the environment, and the high increase in demand based on population growth [52]—there has been an increase in global efforts to generate significant amounts of energy from renewable sources. In all, the power sector has made significant progress in recent years in increasing the use of renewable energy by adding 167 gigawatts (GW) of renewable energy capacity globally in 2017, a growth of 8.3% compared to 2016 and a continuation of previous growth rates since 2010, averaging 8% each year [53]. Moreover, in 2018, the deployment of renewables reached record levels in terms of both power generation and capacity, with growth from approximately 0.25% to 19% in total final energy consumption [53].

The commitment of many countries to renewable energy is affirmed by the investments and effort in extra work done to attain set renewable energy generation targets. For instance, according to the EU, the goal is to reach a 27% increase in the share of renewable energy sources in primary energy in 2030 with respect to the 1990 levels and a 40% reduction in CO₂ emissions with respect to the 1990 levels by 2030 [54]. Germany aims for an 80% renewable energy share by 2030 according to Meza [55]. China, on the other hand, targets a 40% increase in renewable energy production by 2030 [56,57], India aims for a 50% share of energy from non-fossil fuels and about 500 GW renewable energy capacity by 2030 [58], Morocco plans to increase its share of renewables capacity to 52% (20% solar, 20% wind, and 12% hydro) by 2030 [59,60], and the Philippines aims for 35% by 2030 [61]. Africa is endowed with considerable renewable energy resources. However, around 600 million people in Africa still have no access to power, representing 48% of the continent's population [62]. The region has approximately 1.1 GW of hydropower capacity, 9,000 MW of geothermal potential, and abundant solar, biomass, and wind potential. Unfortunately, this potential has not been fully exploited, mostly because of the limited policy interest and investment levels. The development of renewable energy power capacity is advancing greatly around the world. Figure 7 illustrates the development from 2011 to 2021 [35].

Figure 7 Trends in Renewable Energy [35].

Many countries have realised that renewable energy could significantly improve the socio-economic footprint of the energy system, and the energy transition cannot be considered in isolation from the socio-economic system in which it is deployed [53]. All of these are linked together as shown in Figure 8 below. Transitioning to renewable energy can lead to an increase in employment within the energy sector, boost GDP, and improve the welfare of the people [53].

Figure 8 Obtaining the Socio-Economic Footprint from a Given Combination of an Energy Transition Roadmap and a Socio-Economic System Structure and Outlook [53].

All things considered, the shift to renewable energy will create more jobs in the energy sector than are lost in the fossil fuel industry. According to IRENA [53], the roadmap to Renewable Energy would result in the loss of 7.4 million jobs in fossil fuels by 2050 and create about 19 million new jobs in renewable energy, energy efficiency and grid enhancement, and energy flexibility. Overall, a net gain of 11.6 million jobs will be created. To meet the goals set out in the Paris Agreement, renewable energy needs to be scaled up at least six times faster [53]. Many countries have realized the role renewable energy could play in socio-economic development and are making efforts to increase their energy supply from renewable sources. The following Figures 9(a1) and 9(a2) illustrates the top 10 countries leading in renewable energy based on their electricity generation in year 2022 and 2021 respectively and Figure 9(b) shows renewable energy employment in select countries [63,64].

Figure 9 (a1): Renewable Energy Country Rankings (Adopted and modified from [64]). (a2): Renewable Energy Country Rankings (Adopted and modified from [64]). (b): Renewable Energy Employment in Select Countries [63].

As shown in Figures 9(a1) and 9(a2), China, the US, and Brazil are the top three leaders with installed capacity in renewable energy in both 2022 and 2021. Japan, number 8 in 2021 but moved ahead of Russian Federation in 2022 while Spain, in 10^th position in 2021 was surpassed by Türkiye in 2022. Based on IRENA [65], solar PV and wind are set to contribute two-thirds of renewables growth. China alone accounted for almost half of the global increase in renewable electricity in 2021, followed by the United States. Looking at Figure 7 above, solar PV and onshore wind for example contributed a higher share in the renewable energy development trend from 2011 to 2021. Policies such as feed-in tariffs, green certificates, and renewable portfolio standards [66,67] drove the development of solar power between 210 and 2022. Additionally due to comprehensive support mechanisms encompassing financial, technical, and regulatory measures, wind power experienced a tenfold increase reaching 365.44 GW in 2022 [68]. According to World Resources Institute [69], installed solar capacity in the U.S. now totals about 220 GW, enough to provide over 7% of the nation's electricity. Increasing the cost of electricity, increase in demand coupled with climate change issues and encouraging policy developments at states level have helped development. Additionally, advancement in technology coupled with financial incentives has made development easier. In 2023, China generated about 37% of global wind and solar electricity. According to Lin et al. [70], China proposed a clean, low- carbon, safe, and efficient modern energy system to reach the ambition of non-fossil energy, which accounts for more than 20% of the overall energy consumption. In addition, China's president Xi Jinping promised during a speech at the general debate of the 75th Session of the United Nations General Assembly in 2020 that "China will increase its nationally determined contribution, adopt more ambitious policies and measures, strive to reach the peak of CO₂ emissions by 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2060" – a key and even decisive force to promote the global response to climate change under new historical conditions [70]. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration [71], generation from renewable energy sources (wind, hydropower, solar, biomass, and geothermal sources) in 2021 totaled 795 million megawatt-hours (MWh), about 21% of all electricity generated in the US, surpassing nuclear power (778 million MWh). This figure excludes electricity generated in the industry, commercial, or residential sectors, such as small-scale solar or wind or combined heat and power systems [71].

Germany's renewable energy accounted for 42% of electricity consumed in 2021, based on the preliminary calculations by the Centre for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wurttemberg and the German Association of Energy and Water Industries [55]. According to IEA [60], Togo has a diversified energy mix, with about 13% of its final energy consumption coming from renewable energy, in particular hydropower. According to Togo First [72], Togo for the first time ranked as the world's 33rd largest clean energy promoter and the 10th in Africa. In the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), Senegal is the only one with a better rank, occupying 13th place worldwide and second in Africa. Among Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) countries, Senegal and Nigeria are ahead of Togo, with Nigeria occupying 14^th place worldwide and third in Africa. These figures are not based on the share of renewable energy or installed capacity but are related to clean energy promotion.

The need to develop renewable energy has started to be recognized, and some wind farms, for instance, have already been installed in Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia. South Africa currently has the largest renewable energy market by far and is expected to have the largest deployment (83%) in the next five years, as shown in Figures 5(a) and 5(b). Furthermore, several countries in North Africa, including Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria, have announced ambitious targets for developing renewable energy resources and have begun to put in place some legislation. As a result, Morocco shortlisted six consortia to develop 850 MW of wind capacity across five projects in the Sahara Desert. Unlike South Africa and Morocco, other African countries, such as Kenya and Uganda, established a renewable energy feed-in tariff for small-scale renewables, and Zambia, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Uganda, and Mozambique have also built large-scale hydro projects. Though literature highlights these developments, which seem significant, reality reveals that large portions of the population still lack access to energy.

In the approach adopted by these global south countries, priority is given to environmental sustainability, energy security, involvement of the local content, and the urge to decrease pollution and all health-related impacts. The projected objectives of these countries are the development of their own technologies and increasing their standards as producers of value-added goods and services and ultimately sources of innovation.

As a related example, the development of renewable energy (mainly solar cookers, biogas digesters, and energy saving stoves) in the northwest of China has significantly improved the efficiency of energy consumption and considerably altered the health status of the inhabitants as well as their standard of living [73]. Moreover, in Brazil, renewable energy projects generated nearly 1.2 million jobs in 2020. Overall, despite the pandemic, renewable energy sector jobs grew to 12 million worldwide in 2020 [74], as shown in Figure 9(b) above. The replacement of firewood with clean energy has also reduced the susceptibility of women, who are often exposed to smoke pollution, to respiratory disorders. In the case of Togo, as discussed in section 5.5, few jobs were created during the electrification program in 2017, and more than 700 jobs were created during the construction of the 50 MW solar plant financed by the IRENA-ADFD project. With the planned projects discussed in section 4, these numbers are yet to increase. However financial need represents a major barrier to scaling up renewable energy development and employment. The lack of micro-financing for initiating new ventures was listed as a barrier. Other barriers include the lack of policy intervention and inadequate regulatory frameworks in place to promote private investment in renewable energy technologies. There are expectations that the government will put in place some sort of subsidies that will encourage the installation and operation of different projects thereby making an avenue for new jobs. Suggestions include government partners with relevant countries for product grant mechanisms to seek financial help from relevant funding bodies. This could help develop a workforce and fund several of the planned projects. Other suggestions include providing loans for people to go for renewable energy while raising awareness about it to help more people buy into the idea.

The development of renewable energy in several African countries has had a lot of positive impacts. The increase in developments is due to factors such as the introduction of standardized PPAs and power purchase tariffs; in Tanzania, for example, this led the national utility to undertake standardized PPAs for 40 MW of small renewable energy power projects. As a result, these projects now supply the national grid with enough clean electricity to light 54,000 rural households. Rwanda, meanwhile, benefited from micro hydropower projects. Its rural communities hardly have access to grid power. The introduction of a 200-kW micro hydropower plant provides electricity to over 800 households as well as various schools, health centres, and small businesses in a rural district [75]. Moreover, in Uganda, a 60-kW hydropower plant that was the only source of electricity for a hospital in a small rural village was upgraded to 300 kW. This increase in capacity allowed the hospital to sell its surplus electricity to around 800 customers, including 400 households and 194 small businesses, in proximity to the hospital [75].

Overall, commendable progress has been made in many countries in renewable energy development. According to IEA [76] report for example, China is set to account for almost 60% of all renewable capacity installed worldwide between now and 2030, based on current market trends and today's policy settings by governments. Nearly 70 countries that collectively account for 80% of global renewable power capacity are poised to reach or surpass their current renewable ambitions for 2030. However, the growth is not fully in line with the goal set by nearly 200 governments at the COP28 climate change conference in December 2023 to triple the world's renewable capacity this decade. The United Nations [77] progress assessment reveals that the world is severely off track to realize the 2030 Agenda. However, IEA analysis indicates that fully meeting the tripling target is entirely possible if governments take near-term opportunities for action. Recommendations include outlining bold plans in the next round of Nationally Determined Contributions under the Paris Agreement due next year and bolstering international cooperation on bringing down high financing costs in emerging and developing economies, which are restraining renewables' growth in high-potential regions such as Africa and Southeast Asia [76].

7. Energy Policy and Regulation

There are currently few policies for renewable energies. According to the Togo Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, Interim (PRSP-I) for 2006–2008, the government has pursued several objectives in the energy sector, including implementation of policies for the promotion of renewable energy, the increase of electricity supply for rural areas, and the implementation of regulatory institutions. Furthermore, energy policies and strategies have been developed since 2012 by the Togolese Ministry of Energy and Mines through the help of consultants. This covers the following:

• A diversification of the energy mix with the objective of increasing energy security. This encourages the use of new energies to substitute for imported petroleum products, such as promoting Togo's sedimentary basins (for oil and gas exploration).
• Special emphasis on the energy mix in rural areas and the development of rural electrification and of renewable energies.
• An increase in participation of the private sector due to the public sector's inability to finance the increasing requirements for energy infrastructure.
• An update of the regulatory framework and the implementation of new regulations.
• Strengthening the coordination amongst the various entities involved in the Togolese energy sector and ensuring the availability of reliable energy data through continued support to the energy information system.

The goal was a diversification of several energy mix including approximately 6% from renewable energy between 2015 and 2020. This goal was reached and a further increase of the share of renewable energy in the mix increased to 9.74% in 2021 [19]. According to the World Bank [46], this does not address, in the short-medium term, key sub-sector issues such as: (i) the financial equilibrium of the sub-sector; (ii) energy pricing policy and tariffs; (iii) delivery mechanisms and financing of rural electrification; (iv) upgrading the regulatory framework for the mobilization of private sector financing; (v) adjusting the framework and providing incentives for the development of renewable energies; and (vi) strengthening of the institutional framework. Further to this, a few other developments arose: Institutionally, a separate entity within the Ministry of Energy called AT2ER was created in 2016 to specifically take care of renewable energy projects and rural electrification programs. On the organizational level, an electrification strategy has been put in place with the goal of achieving 100% access to electricity by 2030. Additionally, there have been developments, such as the construction of four mini solar photovoltaic plants between 2017 and 2019 in the cities of Bavou (160 kWc), Assoukoko (250 kWc), Takpapiéni (100 kWc) and Kountoum (100 kWc) as part of the Regional Program for Development of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (PRODERE) in Togo.

7.1 Renewable Energy Laws

The renewable energy laws put in place include LAW 2018-018, which relates to the production of electricity from renewable energy sources in Togo. This law provides texts for its application in four decrees: orders relating to approval, licensing, connection to the electricity distribution network, and the management of waste from electricity production installations based on renewable energy sources and technical documents, in particular the network connection specifications and the national plan for the construction of electricity production infrastructures based on renewable energy sources. Three out of four decrees were issued [27,49]:

• Decree n 2019-18/PR of 6 February 2019, setting the conditions and procedure for the conclusion and termination of the concession agreement for the production and marketing of electric energy based on renewable energy sources.
• Decree n 2019-019/PR of 6 February 2019, fixing the power thresholds of the different legal regimes for projects of electricity production based on renewable energy sources.
• Decree n 2019-021/PR of 13 February 2019, setting the conditions and terms for issuing and withdrawing licenses for the production, distribution, and marketing of electrical energy based on renewable energy sources.

Approval orders have also been issued as follows [49]:

• Inter-ministerial decree n 058/MME/MEF/2019, setting the terms and conditions for issuing approval for the import of materials and equipment to produce electricity from renewable energy sources.
• Inter-ministerial decree n 059/MME/MEF/2019, fixing the costs of examining the application file and the costs of granting approval for the import of materials and equipment to produce electricity from renewable energy sources.
• Decree n 060/MME/CAB/20219 on the creation, attribution, composition, and operation of the approval commission for the benefit of tax and customs exemptions provided for by Law 2108-010 of 8 August 2018.

Based on the above, it is clear that a few energy policies and strategies have been developed, and some renewable energy laws have been put in place. However, there are issues associated with these when it comes to renewable energy development. These are discussed below.

7.2 Energy Policy, Framework, and Regulations

It has come to light that there are a few policies which, according to the stakeholders, are "merely on paper" and not being put in application. Some of these policies have been implemented in the past, and policy approaches and retroactive changes have led to reduced investor confidence [48]. Additionally, some of these policies and regulations are complex, unclear, and lacking in transparency when it comes to key roles and responsibilities of stakeholders. There is a need for the government to revisit the policies in place to enable fair sharing of risks and benefits among all stakeholders [48].

7.3 Diversification of the Energy Mix

The Diversification of the Energy Mix law encourages diversification of the energy mix with the objective to increase energy security in Togo. On the other hand, this becomes difficult if sufficient resource information is unavailable. More research needs to be carried out to determine the viability, availability, and applicability of renewable energy technologies as well as other sources of energy that could be used to supplement the energy mix. This calls for collaboration with international businesses and experts to develop and make available the required information that would serve as a guideline. Real mapping of technologies as well as resource assessments need to be developed to provide readily available information for investors to use. In addition, technologies and components are not standardized, which leads to various risk when it comes to deployment as well as performance [48]. Collaboration on standards with externals is key to addressing this.

7.4 Public–Private Sector Partnership

The Public-Private Sector Partnership law calls for an increase in participation of the private sector due to the inability of the public sector to finance the increasing requirement of energy infrastructure. Though this is crucial, the current risk of investment is considered too high. First, the complexity and lack of transparency when it comes to the policies and regulations does not help. Should there be government support through a quota obligation system, for example, this could encourage private sectors to invest. Second, during data validation conducted in 2020, stakeholders discussed the fact that tax exoneration benefits organisations with public interest. This makes private companies reluctant to invest because of the lack of fair treatment. There is a need to reevaluate the existing regulations so that each organisation is given the same resources and opportunities irrespective of their existing need. Third, there is a lack of engagement with private companies when it comes to decision-making relating to the production, sale, and adoption of renewable energy. This should be considered along with creating a market environment so that the private sector can innovate, compete, and benefit from these investments [78].

7.5 Institutional and Administrative Barriers

Coordination amongst the various entities involved in the Togolese energy sector remain complex. The sector is said to be weak, lack dedicated institutions, have unclear responsibilities, and lack coordination between agencies. According to Salifou et al. [48], the situation is slow, with non-transparent permitting procedures, which is mostly due to insufficient capacity to manage applications in a timely manner. The lack of communication and cross-discipline coordination remains a barrier to development. In addition, developers lack knowledge when it comes to putting together applications, which leads to difficulty in acquiring projects connected to the grid [48].

7.6 Knowledge Exchange and Capacity Building

Ensuring the availability of reliable energy data through continued support for the energy information system is key to development. According to Osu [78], human and institutional capacity building is necessary at every stage to maintain the relevant skills when it comes to the design, development, fabrication, and maintenance of renewable energy technologies. It is argued that there is a lack of local experts, which may limit the choice of projects and number of installations that could be developed [48]. Currently, Togo is still relying on experts from other countries when it comes to the field of renewable energy, which leads to a high cost of operation and maintenance due the lack of qualified local staff. With the help of Urbis Foundation 100, experts have been trained on solar technology and operations in the cities of Kpalime, Tsevie, and Anieh. Additionally, KYA-Energy Group in partnership with the solar energy lab at the University of Lomé trained 50 engineers at a master's level and 3,000 technicians (600 technicians per region in all five regions of Togo) received a 2-week training in 2019 with the plan to employ them in future upcoming renewable energy projects. However, the training provided was based on imported equipment, and few of the trained staff are employed. In-depth training of key personnel on the functionality of available renewable energy technologies will be essential for development in all stages of the project. A need to develop a skilled workforce capable of producing techno-economically viable components and systems in-house is strongly encouraged as seen in Burkina Faso, where solar PV modules delivering about 60–100 PV panels per day are being assembled within the country since the start of the construction of a 30 MW factory in Ouagadougou in 2017 [44]. Congo and Cameroon also took local initiatives to develop locally made small-scale hydro power plants, given the need in remote areas. These could be done in Togo if approaches were introduced to provide a long-term solution to the high capital costs of the technologies, incorporate institutional sustainability and the government engagement with funding bodies is needed to secure funds that will favour the off-grid and poorest communities. Additionally, a need to include local participation in the design and operation of projects, introduce a cross-subsidization tariff scheme that covers the operation and maintenance costs of off-grid solar PV users and government support to help private investment in rural electrification via build-own-operate arrangements is necessary. Togo is encouraged to learn from advanced and knowledgeable organisations to build the skills needed within the country for better development. Additionally, capacity building is needed at a local level to improve the sustainability of renewable energy projects.

7.7 Scaling Up Renewable Energy to Improve Energy Supply and Production

Our study has identified significant opportunities for renewable energy development in Togo, particularly in solar photovoltaic (PV) and small-scale hydropower technologies. These findings are detailed in our previous works [23,27,79]. The analysis highlights that many regions benefit from high solar irradiance and are traversed by rivers such as the Kpendjal, Ouale, and Sansargou in Madouri, the Oti in Mango, and the Mono in Kaboli. These natural resources present strong potential for the deployment of solar energy systems and micro-hydropower installations.

Harnessing these resources could play a transformative role in supporting Togo's agricultural communities, particularly in rural areas. For instance, integrating solar-powered irrigation systems—comprising basic components like converters, transformers, pumps, and batteries—could enable year-round farming, reducing reliance on seasonal rainfall. This would significantly enhance food security and economic resilience.

Comparable examples, such as Nepal's successful use of river systems for micro-hydro development to electrify off-grid rural areas [80], demonstrate the viability of such approaches. Based on these insights, we recommend a series of strategic actions to scale up renewable energy solutions and improve energy access and agricultural productivity across Togo as follows:

• To support the development of a sustainable and inclusive energy future, further research is needed to map and assess the viability, availability, and applicability of renewable and alternative energy technologies. This includes identifying resources that can supplement Togo's energy mix, with a focus on real-world feasibility. Collaboration with international experts and businesses is essential to access reliable data that can guide investment decisions and inform national energy strategies.
• Priority should be given to the development of renewable energy sources, particularly solar and small-scale hydropower. These technologies offer scalable, community-driven solutions. Engaging local communities in identifying suitable technologies, establishing manufacturing capabilities, and producing locally adapted, efficient materials will enhance accessibility and long-term sustainability. Strengthening energy management, promoting diversification, and investing in research for system optimization are also critical.
• To scale up renewable energy deployment, innovative financial models must be explored. These may include government partnerships, international grants, and micro-financing—especially in rural areas, where flexible repayment options like post-harvest crop payments can empower local entrepreneurs.
• Policy reform is also necessary. Existing regulations should be simplified and made transparent to encourage fair risk-sharing and attract private investment. Liberalising the energy sector, reducing import duties on renewable equipment, and standardising power purchase agreements will further stimulate growth.
• Finally, public awareness, capacity building, and knowledge transfer are vital. Educating communities and developing local expertise will ensure long-term success in renewable energy adoption and implementation.

8. Conclusion

This paper explores Togo's energy landscape, focusing on current policies, strategies, and the critical role of renewable energy in achieving sustainable development. Access to electricity remains a major challenge, particularly in rural areas, despite the country's significant potential for solar and small-scale hydropower. Our findings reveal that while some progress has been made, Togo continues to rely heavily on biomass and imported energy, underscoring the urgent need for a diversified and resilient energy mix.

Our analysis reveals that while there have been investments and initiatives, progress is hindered by several systemic issues. Critical issue among them is the absence of clear, transparent, and streamlined regulatory frameworks. In contrast to other countries where well-defined policies have accelerated renewable energy adoption, Togo's frameworks are often complex, ambiguous, or lack clarity on stakeholder roles and responsibilities. These findings form the foundation of this research, which aims to guide the development of a more inclusive, resilient, and sustainable energy future for Togo.

In summary key findings from this study highlight several systemic barriers:

1. Policy and regulatory gaps: Togo lacks clear, transparent, and streamlined energy policies. Unlike countries where regulatory clarity has accelerated renewable energy adoption, Togo's frameworks are often complex, ambiguous, or fail to define stakeholder roles effectively.
2. Limited Investment and Incentives: There is insufficient financial commitment to renewable energy. The absence of targeted incentives, standards, and risk-sharing mechanisms discourages private sector engagement.
3. Technical and economic barriers: High equipment costs, uncertain returns on investment, and limited access to financing deter innovation and scale-up.
4. Knowledge and capacity deficits: Public awareness and technical expertise remain low, limiting the adoption and maintenance of renewable technologies.
5. Legal and licensing challenges: Current legal provisions are inadequate to attract long-term investment. Tax exemptions often favour public-interest entities, creating an uneven playing field for private companies.
6. Lack of private sector inclusion: Private companies are rarely involved in decision-making processes, stifling innovation and market development.

Additionally, tax exemptions tend to disproportionately benefit public-interest organizations, discouraging private sector participation. The lack of private sector engagement in decision-making further limits innovation and market growth.

To address these challenges, recommendations based on these findings include:

• Policy reform: to simplify and clarify existing regulations, ensuring transparency and fair stakeholder engagement.
• Financial innovation: to develop inclusive financial models—grants, SME loans, and micro-financing (e.g., crop-based repayment)—to support renewable energy ventures.
• Sector liberalisation to open the energy market to competition to attract investment and foster innovation.
• Incentive structures: to introduce fair tax incentives, reduce import duties on renewable equipment, and standardise power purchase agreements and tariffs.
• Capacity building: by investing in public education, technical training, and knowledge transfer to build local expertise.
• Private sector engagement: to create a collaborative environment where private companies can contribute to policy, production, and distribution strategies.

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful for access and support of the Togolese Government including the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Rural Development who helped fund some of the field work. NK acknowledges partial PhD studentship funding by the School of Engineering at Robert Gordon University. The authors are also thankful to all the participants from various governmental, private, public, international, and non-governmental organisations, academic institutions, or indigenous communities for their time and valuable contributions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, investigation, methodology, project administration, resources, software, validation, visualization, and writing: NK. Review and editing: NK, JN, and SV. Supervision: JN and SV. Writing—original draft: NK, JN, and SV. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Funding

Togolese Government including the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Rural Development who helped fund some of the field work. Partial PhD funding by the School of Engineering at Robert Gordon University.

Competing Interests

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data Availability Statement

Data available upon request.

AI-Assisted Technologies Statement

The authors would like to acknowledge the use of CoPilot at the final stage of this manuscript solely to improve the clarity, grammar and spelling errors. After using this tool, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of this publication. This use was limited to editing and did not involve generating any new text or ideas.