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OBM Integrative and Complementary Medicine

(ISSN 2573-4393)

OBM Integrative and Complementary Medicine is an international peer-reviewed Open Access journal published quarterly online by LIDSEN Publishing Inc. It covers all evidence-based scientific studies on integrative, alternative and complementary approaches to improving health and wellness.

Topics contain but are not limited to:

  • Acupuncture
  • Acupressure
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  • Diet, nutrition and lifestyle changes
  • Herbal medicine
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The journal publishes a variety of article types: Original Research, Review, Communication, Opinion, Comment, Conference Report, Technical Note, Book Review, etc.

There is no restriction on paper length, provided that the text is concise and comprehensive. Authors should present their results in as much detail as possible, as reviewers are encouraged to emphasize scientific rigor and reproducibility.

Publication Speed (median values for papers published in 2024): Submission to First Decision: 6.8 weeks; Submission to Acceptance: 14.3 weeks; Acceptance to Publication: 6 days (1-2 days of FREE language polishing included)

Current Issue: 2025  Archive: 2024 2023 2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016
Open Access Review

A Review on the Ethnomedicinal Plants Used in Zimbabwe for the Treatment and Management of Skin Conditions: Perspectives on Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation

Elliot Nyagumbo 1,2 ORCID logo, Trust Nyirenda 3, Cephas Mawere 4, Alfred M. Mutaramutswa 1, Godwins Ngorima 1, Donald T. Kapanga 1, Fabian Maunganidze 3, Marvellous Matsheza 5, William Pote 5, Lucy Mabaya 1, Michael Bhebhe 2,*

  1. National Pathology Research and Diagnostic Centre, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe

  2. Department of Biochemistry, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe

  3. Department of Physiology, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe

  4. Department of Biotechnology, Harare Institute of Technology, Harare, Zimbabwe

  5. Department of Biomedical Sciences, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe

* Correspondence: Michael Bhebhe

Academic Editor: James D. Adams

Special Issue: Evidence-Based Application of Natural Products in the Prevention and Treatment of Diseases

Received: March 05, 2025 | Accepted: July 23, 2025 | Published: August 19, 2025

OBM Integrative and Complementary Medicine 2025, Volume 10, Issue 3, doi:10.21926/obm.icm.2503036

Recommended citation: Nyagumbo E, Nyirenda T, Mawere C, Mutaramutswa AM, Ngorima G, Kapanga DT, Maunganidze F, Matsheza M, Pote W, Mabaya L, Bhebhe M. A Review on the Ethnomedicinal Plants Used in Zimbabwe for the Treatment and Management of Skin Conditions: Perspectives on Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation. OBM Integrative and Complementary Medicine 2025; 10(3): 036; doi:10.21926/obm.icm.2503036.

© 2025 by the authors. This is an open access article distributed under the conditions of the Creative Commons by Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is correctly cited.

Abstract

Medicinal plants remain central to healthcare in Africa, where up to 80% of the population relies on traditional remedies to manage a range of health conditions, including skin ailments. In Zimbabwe, the country's rich biodiversity and favourable agroecological zones support a diverse range of ethnomedicinal plants. However, much of the knowledge surrounding these plants remains dispersed and scientifically under-evaluated. This review consolidates evidence from ethnobotanical surveys, peer-reviewed research, and grey literature to identify 93 plant species used in Zimbabwe for the treatment of 21 skin-related conditions, ranging from wounds and ulcers to measles and fungal infections. Most remedies are applied topically, often in powder or paste form, with leaves and roots cited as the most commonly used plant parts. Notably, plant species from the Fabaceae, Asteraceae, and Verbenaceae families featured most frequently. Pharmacological assessments revealed that many of these plants exhibit antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Yet, safety data is uneven; 40.9% of species had confirmed low toxicity, 8.6% were associated with high toxicological risks, and the remainder lacked sufficient toxicological profiling. By compiling and critically analyzing this knowledge, the study bridges gaps between traditional practice and biomedical research. It highlights species with potential for further pharmacological validation and underscores the role of indigenous knowledge in informing future dermatological drug discovery. Ultimately, this work contributes to the broader literature on integrative medicine by mapping out a culturally and scientifically relevant repository of medicinal plants used in Zimbabwe.

Graphical abstract

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Keywords

Ethnobotanical; ethnomedicine; pharmacological; toxicology; traditional plants; skin; wounds; Zimbabwe

1. Introduction

Traditional medicine is described by the World Organization as the sum of the knowledge, skills, and practices based on the theories, beliefs, and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health and the prevention, diagnosis, improvement, or treatment of physical and mental illness [1]. Traditional medicines form an integral part of the cultural heritage in Africa, with approximately 80% of the population on the continent relying on these remedies for their healthcare needs [2]. Modern technology applied to traditional knowledge has played a significant role in deriving at least 40% of all modern medicines directly or indirectly from medicinal plants [3]. Throughout history, traditional medicines have consistently held a crucial position in global healthcare, persistently utilised for addressing a wide range of conditions and ailments.

The skin, which consists of multiple layers such as the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis, is the body's largest organ. As an organ, it provides protection and acts as a physical barrier against infections [4]. Skin diseases affect about 1.8 billion people in the world [1]. Skin diseases are common in Africa, and the prevalence varies by region and population. Some common skin diseases in Africa include scabies, eczema, acne, and fungal infections [5]. Skin conditions such as cancers, eczema, herpes infection, fungal infection, anti-ageing concerns, itching, insect bites, pemphigus vulgaris, trauma, psoriasis, athlete's foot infections, rashes, skin pigmentation, acne, and primary and minor wound infections are the most prevalent skin disorders [6]. Skin diseases affect individuals of all age groups, but children are particularly vulnerable due to the thinness and delicacy of their skin [7]. The utilisation of natural plant-based medicines for treating skin disorders is prevalent in Zimbabwe and worldwide [2]. This approach is favoured due to several advantages, such as minimal side effects, cost-effectiveness, and longstanding acceptance of its use. Plants contain phytochemical substances that are employed in the treatment of skin disorders.

Phytochemicals consist of primary and secondary metabolites. Secondary metabolites have long been recognised for their bioactivity against various diseases. Several secondary metabolites, such as mangiferin, lutein, curcumin, resveratrol, embelin, naringenin, quercetin, lycopene, gingerol, and apigenin, are utilised for the treatment of skin disorders [4]. Herbal remedies like tea tree oil, Aloe vera, and green tea extract have been used to reduce inflammation and control acne breakouts. Numerous studies have examined medicinal plant extracts for bioactive properties like antioxidants, anti-inflammatory effects, and antimicrobial activities in skin conditions, to validate their efficacy [8]. Traditional healers in Zimbabwe use a plethora of plant species for dermatological issues. A survey in south-central Zimbabwe identified 93 medicinal plant species from 41 families used to treat 18 different categories of diseases, including skin infections. Trees and shrubs are predominantly used, with leaves being the most common plant part applied. Common skin conditions treated include abscesses, acne, burns, boils, ringworm, rashes, shingles, sores, wounds, and warts [9].

The Fabaceae family is notably significant, with about 101 species used traditionally in Zimbabwe for various medicinal purposes, including skin-related issues. For example, species like Indigofera and Senna are used for conditions like wounds and sores [9]. Plants like Hypoxis hemerocallidea and Helichrysum paronychioides have high cultural importance in treating skin diseases [10]. These plants are often used in the form of roots, whole plants, or leaves, prepared through concoctions, macerations, or decoctions.

Aloe excelsa, a plant that is indigenous to Zimbabwe and some parts of Southern Africa, is very effective against skin diseases like wounds. Aloe ecelsa is known for its anti-inflammatory, skin protection, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, antiseptic, and wound healing properties [11]. Although traditional medicine is gaining greater acceptance in Zimbabwe, the valuable indigenous knowledge concerning traditional remedies remains inadequately documented. Proper documentation of the conventional use of medicinal plants in Zimbabwe for treating skin diseases is crucial. Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) documentation and scientific validation play a vital role in safeguarding indigenous knowledge and cultural traditions. IKS offers alternative, complementary, and more accessible treatment options. The ethnopharmacological approach contributes to biodiversity preservation while serving as a foundation for discovering innovative pharmaceuticals and therapeutic strategies based on medicinal plant knowledge.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Protocol Development

The Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) scoping review methodology [12] guided the study design. It followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) [13,14]. Here, three members of the research team (CM, AM, and EN) reviewed literature from databases, registers, and websites, as well as books (see Figure 1). The current policy prohibits the registration of scoping reviews on PROSPERO, which is the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews. Therefore, this review was not eligible for registration. However, the protocol is accessible from the authors upon request.

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Figure 1 Flowchart for the review of literature [14].

2.2 Identifying the Research Question

The study was guided by the research question: What is the pharmacology and toxicology of medicinal plants traditionally used in Zimbabwe for the management of skin conditions?

2.3 Information Sources

Electronic databases such as Science Direct, PubMed, and Google Scholar were mined for literature on medicinal plants used for the treatment of skin conditions in Zimbabwe. The systematic literature search was done using key terms as shown in the Table S1. Bibliographies of cited studies were also searched, and Google, websites, and organisations such as university libraries were used for unpublished data or grey literature. Three co-authors then screened titles and abstracts and checked full-text articles for eligibility. The ethnobotanical survey was done in the form of interviews and questionnaires with the traditional herbal practitioners.

2.4 Study Selection

Records identified through the search strategy were downloaded as BibTeX files are imported into Zotero. This was followed by the removal of duplicate articles. A CSV file with article data was then exported for records screening. The titles and abstracts of the downloaded articles were thus independently screened by three researchers (CM, AMM, EN) using pre-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Where all three researchers agreed, studies were included, while consensus was used to settle disparities. Moreover, the full-text review was completed by the three researchers (CM, AM, EN). In case of uncertainty regarding the eligibility of an article, consensus was also used as a resolution among the three researchers.

2.5 Inclusion Criteria

Peer-reviewed journal articles included in this study covered herbal remedies used for skin conditions with a focus on Zimbabwe. Studies published in English addressing phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of medicinal plants were included. Articles published between the 1st of January 1990, and the 17th of December 2021, were included in this scoping review. Each paper was to be original research or a protocol.

2.6 Exclusion Criteria

This scoping review excluded studies on veterinary herbal remedies, research involving non-Zimbabwean populations, and records not related to wound healing or skin conditions. Additionally, studies with unavailable full texts, those focusing on unrelated diseases, and unpublished works such as theses and dissertations were omitted. Scoping, systematic, and narrative reviews, as well as studies with insufficient or inconclusive data for analysis, were also excluded.

2.7 Data Charting Process

Relevant variables were extracted using a developed data-charting form. The charted variables were the literature characteristics (family, plant name, growth habit, ethnomedicinal use(s), and parts used as well as distribution), pharmacological activities, and toxicological profiles of each plant.

2.8 Data Analysis

The PRISMA-ScR checklist was used to report the results of the scoping review. A data extraction framework developed by the researchers (EN, CM) was then employed for a deductive analysis. Details generated from the study were the forms and routes of administration of the traditional medicines for the management of skin diseases. A descriptive analysis highlighting the plant families and plant parts used for making herbal medicines, the forms in which the traditional remedies are produced, the family of plants used for the traditional remedy, and the skin conditions the conventional treatments are made to prevent or cure was conducted. A compilation of the names of the plant families studied was also done, and the findings were presented in tables, graphs, and charts.

2.9 Synthesis

The quality or methodology of bias adopted by the included articles was not evaluated in this review [15]. This is so because scoping reviews are not intended to produce a critically appraised and synthesised answer to a specific question. Instead, they merely aim at giving an overview or map of all the evidence. Accordingly, it was not necessary to assess the methodological limitations or bias of evidence included in this scoping review [16].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Literature Search

Our search identified 1335 records, which were downloaded and imported into Zotero. About 8 Duplicates and 48 ineligible studies were then removed before screening of records. A comma-separated values (CSV) file was generated for analysis after exporting library data from Zotero. Of the remaining 1279 records, screened titles (n = 683) and abstracts (n = 346) were excluded because they were not specific or relevant to skin conditions or Zimbabwe. Of the 250 reports that were sought for retrieval, 46 could not be retrieved as they were not open source. The remaining 204 studies had 95 review papers, which were then excluded, leaving 109 reports to be included in this scoping review. The authors also considered grey literature from organisations, websites, Google search, and retrieved referenced citations (Total 329 reports) for data on the pharmacology and toxicology profile of medicinal plants used in Zimbabwe for the management of skin conditions. Thus, a total of 438 articles were included in this scoping review. Figure 1 shows the flow diagram of the records screening process.

3.2 Ethnobotanical Surveys of Medicinal Plants Used in Zimbabwe for Treating and Managing Skin Conditions

Ethnobotanical surveys play a crucial role as preliminary screening tools in the exploration of the pharmacological potential of plants. We have identified that Zimbabwe utilises a minimum of 93 plant families for the treatment of skin diseases. This indicates that Zimbabwe has a vast repository of medicinal plants for skin disorders. Bitew [17] conducted a review that identified similar plant species used for treating wounds and skin conditions, including plants found in Ethiopia: Hypoestes forskalei, Solanum incanum, and Ziziphus mucronata. Several other plants have been highlighted by Mabona and Van Vuuren [18] in a review on medicinal plants used for the treatment of skin diseases in Southern Africa.

The different plant families that are mainstream in the treatment and management of skin infections in Zimbabwe are revealed in Figure 2. The Fabaceae, Asteraceae, and Verbenaceae families contain the majority of the medicinal plants that have been used traditionally in Zimbabwe to treat and manage skin conditions. This could be attributed to the greater prevalence and higher number of plant species belonging to those families within the flora of Zimbabwe. From the collected data, the Fabaceae family stands out as the most diverse and abundant plant family in the country, hosting a significant number of prevalent species. Fabaceae is a family of plants that are commonly found in the country as trees or shrubs, including common species such as Bobgunnia madagascariensis and Pterocarpus angolensis.

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Figure 2 Families of medicinal plant species used to treat and manage skin conditions in Zimbabwe.

3.3 Plant Parts Used of Medicinal Plants Used in Zimbabwe for Treating and Managing Skin Conditions

Plant roots are the most commonly used part for the treatment of skin diseases. Although the utilisation of roots for medicinal purposes is the least environmentally sustainable, it remains one of the most preferred sources of medicine. Plant leaves closely follow, maybe as a result of their easy availability, accessibility, convenience in their preparation, and efficacy of their phytoconstituents. However, the primary plant parts utilised for skin treatment are the roots, leaves, and bark. However, with some herbs, a complete plant, fruit, bark, stem, or any other part of the plant is used for the treatment of skin diseases [19]. Based on the data presented in Figure 3, it is evident that there are multiple plant part options available for the treatment of specific skin diseases.

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Figure 3 Plant parts used for medicinal preparations used for the management of skin conditions in Zimbabwe.

3.4 Mode of Preparation and Administration of Medicinal Plants Traditionally Used in Zimbabwe for Treating and Managing Skin Conditions

It is reported that southern Africans have traditionally relied on several plants for wound healing [20,21]. Roots, stems, leaves, and bark are the most commonly used parts of plants for preparing infusions and concoctions. As an example, Boophone disticha, a hallucinogenic plant widely distributed in South Africa and Zimbabwe, was reported to be effective in treating wounds after circumcision in males [21]. There have been records of Ximenia caffra being used to treat wounds. X. caffra leaves were reportedly used topically for wound treatment [22].

Different methods of herbal preparations and applications are shown in Table 1 and Figure 4. The various formulations utilized by local individuals for preparing medicinal plants are powder and soot. Fresh or dried plant materials are used. The most common method of treatment is the use of herbal powder, which is prepared by grinding dried leaves, roots, or bark. The herbal powder is applied topically to the wound or ulcer. Herbal infusions are essentially herbal teas consumed for their antibiotic or analgesic properties. Decoctions are prepared by heating a specific quantity of herbs with water and consumed orally or used to bathe. Decoctions are typically utilized for tougher plant materials, including roots, bark, and seeds. Based on the gathered data, some herbs are also used in the form of soup or ash to treat skin conditions. The resulting liquid can be employed to cleanse wounds, serve as an antiseptic, or be applied to skin rashes. This method is straightforward to prepare, making it one of the most commonly used formulations. Plant soup and soot are the least frequently used for managing skin diseases.

Table 1 Medicinal plants used in Zimbabwe for the treatment and management of skin conditions.

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Figure 4 Mode of preparation of plants used for the treatment and management of skin conditions in Zimbabwe.

Ointments are created by combining finely ground herbal powder with petroleum jelly, oil, or wax. Ointments and plant poultices represent 8% of herbal preparations. Typically, a heated mass of plant material is used as a dressing, applied as either a cold or hot compress for treating superficial skin conditions such as urticaria, skin irritation, or sunburn. In these cases, antipruritic agents, skin-calming substances, or protective barriers like pastes may be utilized to manage the symptoms. Understanding the permeability of compounds in medicinal plants is crucial, as these compounds are expected to exert effects on the skin and should be suitable for their intended therapeutic purposes [18]. Various dressings can include mixtures such as salt, porridge, water (from infusions and decoctions), soup, castor oil, snuff, goat's blood, and other plants like Vigna unguicalata, Dicoma anomala, and Ricinus communis seeds. Preparation methods involve boiling, grinding, burning, cooking, crushing, heating, squeezing, and warming.

External Treatment: This involves rubbing herbal preparations on the body, washing with infusions, squeezing them into lesions, applying them to wounds, and using fibers as bandages or fomentations. Internal Treatment: These herbal remedies can also be taken orally. For instance, plants like Abutilon angulatum, Boophone disticha, Combretum platypetalum, and Leonotis ocymifolia are known to treat burns. Most documented medicinal plants are used topically, a method that is often preferred due to its lower risk of absorption and toxicity [46]. Studies have shown that applying Aloe vera gel twice daily for eight weeks can significantly reduce acne lesions and improve acne severity [47]. However, only a limited number of Zimbabwean medicinal plants have been scientifically researched for treating skin conditions.

This review primarily focuses on medicinal plants, without delving into their use as topical agents for cosmetic purposes, skin-lightening effects, or other traditional applications. These plants are known for their ability to improve skin tone and provide anti-aging, antibacterial, and anti-free radical benefits for aged, photoaged, stressed, and tired skin, offering both protective and restorative effects. While the emphasis here is on medicinal plants, further research into their cultural applications as topical agents should not be overlooked, as they play a significant role in traditional skincare practices.

3.5 Common Skin Conditions Treated Traditionally by Medicinal Plants in Zimbabwe

Traditionally, herbal remedies have been employed in Africa to treat and manage a diverse array of illnesses. Onayade et al. [48] described the use of plants in first aid, wound cleansing, wound washing, and pus extraction, as well as for infected and festering wounds. In addition, plants treat boils, abscesses, cuts, skin lesions, wounds, snake bites, insect bites, bruises, pains, ulcers, fractures, trauma, sprains, aches, suppurations, inflammations, scabies, rabies, and dress wounds. Some clinical practices used in wound management can be compared to those in African traditional medicine and Chinese traditional medicine, such as bone setting, fracture management, uvulectomy, abdominal surgery, trephination, and circumcision [49].

From our investigations, Table 1 presents a compilation of plants that have been and are currently being used in Zimbabwe for the treatment of different types of skin conditions. It has been reported that most plants used for dermatological purposes are related to wound healing as well [18]. This review found that 21 skin conditions in Zimbabwe are being treated using plant-based medicine (Figure 5). Zimbabwean traditional medical practitioners have utilized these herbal remedies for first aid, wound cleansing, pus extraction, and treatment of infected and festering wounds. They are also employed in the management of boils, abscesses, cuts, skin lesions, snake and dog bites, insect stings, bruises, pain relief, burn soothing, ulcers, fractures, sprains, aches, suppurations, inflammations, scabies, rabies, and wound dressing. Among the various skin conditions, wounds were found to be the most frequently treated using herbal remedies, followed by measles and tropical ulcers. On the other hand, skin cancers and tumors were observed to be the least treated diseases with herbs. Aloe vera has been observed to expedite the healing process in cases of chronic leg ulcers, surgically induced wounds, and frostbite. The data indicate that one specific plant is used in the treatment of various skin disorders. For example, burns can be treated using Abutilon angulatum, Boophone disticha, Combretum platypetalum, and Leonotis ocymifolia, among other plants.

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Figure 5 Common skin conditions treated traditionally by medicinal plants in Zimbabwe.

3.6 Pharmacological Properties of Medicinal Plants Used in Zimbabwe for Treating and Managing Skin Conditions

The plants in Table 2 exhibit diverse activities and mechanisms of action, contributing to their effectiveness in treating and managing skin conditions. They possess cicatrizant, antiseptic, antifungal, antiviral, antibacterial, antioxidant, antipyretic, anesthetic, analgesic, hemostatic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, growth-promoting, and collagen synthesis/fibroblast formation-enhancing properties [48]. Some plants aid in wound closure, with or without scar formation, while others stimulate glycosaminoglycan synthesis.

Table 2 Pharmacological and toxicological assessment in terms of LD50 (Lethal Dose 50%) and LC50 (Lethal Concentration 50%) of medicinal plants used in Zimbabwe for treating and managing skin conditions.

The mechanism through which these plants speed up the process of various skin conditions varies from plant to plant. The presented data represent a crucial source of traditional knowledge, especially regarding the use of herbal remedies in Africa for treating and managing skin conditions. Traditional knowledge in rural Zimbabwe identifies readily available plants with a historical record of treating skin disorders. However, scientific research on these plants remains limited. Herbal extracts from these plants likely contain diverse molecules with various functions relevant to managing and treating skin conditions. These functions include signaling, lubrication, proliferation support, wound contraction, and provision of cofactors, antioxidants, radical scavenging properties, and essential nutrients [451]. Furthermore, studies suggest the presence of key pharmacological properties like antimicrobial activity, radical scavenging, and antioxidant effects [134], which may help manage and treat skin conditions.

Pharmacological interaction studies of plants that are used in combination with other plants to treat skin infections lack thorough scientific research. Various cultures have recognized the therapeutic benefits of synergistic interactions, and traditional African healing systems often employ combination therapy based on this principle, with a belief that it enhances efficacy. However, ethnopharmacological information regarding these combinations usually lacks adequate scientific validation [18]. Emerging preclinical evidence by Hamza et al. [162] has shown the promising therapeutic potential of Combretum molle, a plant whose extracts exhibit significant potential in wound healing and ulcer repair, particularly in diabetic foot models and deep wound ulcers. In vivo wound healing progression documented through serial photographic captures demonstrates the extract's promising ability for skin regeneration, restoring healthy appearance, combating damaging effects, and stimulating antioxidant enzyme regeneration, highlighting its potential for therapeutic applications [162].

The pharmacological properties of medicinal plants used in Zimbabwe for skin conditions reveal a wide range of benefits, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and wound healing effects. Many species demonstrate multiple activities, enhancing their therapeutic potential. For example, Psorospernum febrifugum is recognized for its anti-psoriatic and anti-acne effects. At the same time, Heteromorpha arborescens is noted for its anti-scabies properties, and several other plants are reported to promote wound healing. Additionally, plants such as Citrullus lanatus, Sansevieria hyacinthoides, Schotia brachypetala, Ximenia caffra, and Zea mays are known for their anti-aging and skin regeneration benefits. This diversity reflects the rich biodiversity inherent in traditional medicinal practices across Zimbabwe, underscoring the vital role these plants play in health promotion and the effective management of skin conditions. This overview emphasizes their significant contribution to local healthcare.

3.7 Toxicological Evaluation of Medicinal Plants Used in Zimbabwe for Treating and Managing Skin Conditions

Basing our understanding of their potential therapeutic effects on traditional knowledge passed down through generations regarding medicinal plants has informed our understanding of their potential therapeutic effects. However, relying solely on this knowledge to assume the safety and absence of toxicity in these plants is not scientifically verified. Recent scientific studies have revealed the toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic properties of various plant species traditionally used for medicinal purposes. Despite their applications in treating skin conditions, these medicinal plants have also been documented to induce adverse effects, including allergic reactions, phytodermatitis, and an increased risk of photosensitization. A review of the evidence bases for botanicals in dermatology conducted by Reuter et al. [452] identified several traditionally used medicinal plants with documented reports of associated toxic effects, with the toxicity evaluations depicted in Table 3.

Table 3 Toxicological evaluation of medicinal plants used by local people in Zimbabwe to treat and manage skin conditions.

A scientific evaluation of the toxicological profiles of 93 Zimbabwean plants traditionally used for treating skin conditions was conducted. The analysis revealed that 58 plants (approximately 62.4%) have documented toxicological studies, while the remaining 35 plants (37.6%) lack such studies.

According to the assessment, medicinal extracts from the plants with published studies were evaluated for their effects on liver cells, genotoxicity, sub-acute toxicity, cytotoxic activity on human monocyte cells, and anticancer properties. To assess the toxic effects of the plants, laboratory tests were conducted using the Ames test (an in vitro test of bacterial and mammalian cells), the micronucleus test (chromosomes of white blood cells), and the comet test (DNA damage). Additionally, other toxicological effects of the plants were studied using the brine shrimp lethality test (BSLT) and the rodent acute toxicity test (RTA). As a result, Munodawafa et al. [75] suggested that these tests provide accurate, cost-effective, and simple assessments of herbal extract safety.

It is determined by the rodent acute toxicity test, also known as the Lethality Dose (LD50) test. LD50 is the dose of a substance (usually in mg/kg of body weight) that causes death in 50% of test animals (typically rats or mice) within a specified time (often 24 hours to 14 days). It is used to assess acute toxicity (short-term poisoning potential) of chemicals, drugs, or plant extracts. Malebo et al. [453] established toxicity classifications based on dosage (mg/kg body weight). Substance is considered highly toxic when its dosage is <50 mg/kg body weight, toxic at 50-300 mg/kg, moderately toxic at 300-1000 mg/kg, mildly toxic: 1000-2000 mg/kg, non-toxic: 2000-5000 mg/kg body weight. LC50 (Lethal Concentration 50%) is the concentration of a substance (usually in µg/mL or ppm) in air, water, or another medium that kills 50% of test organisms for example fish, insects, or cell cultures over a set exposure period. Bussmann et al. [317] and Erhabor et al. [318] indicated that substances with LC50 values less than or equal to 249 µg/mL are highly toxic, those between 250 and 499 µg/mL are moderately toxic, those between 500 and 999 µg/mL are weak or low, and those above 1000 µg/mL are considered safe.

3.8 Phytochemical Evaluation of Medicinal Plants Used in Zimbabwe for Treating and Managing Skin Conditions

Phytochemicals exhibit a wide range of biological activities that contribute to skin health, including free radical scavenging, inhibition of radical chain reactions, metal chelation, and modulation of oxidative enzymes. Additionally, they serve as cofactors for antioxidant enzymes, enhancing the skin’s defense mechanisms against oxidative stress. Studies have demonstrated that plant extracts can stimulate endogenous antioxidant enzymes such as catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX), which play a crucial role in mitigating reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced damage [454]. Plant-derived antioxidants, including polyphenols, tocopherols, carotenoids, and ascorbic acid, effectively neutralize free radicals, thereby promoting skin health [455]. Furthermore, research by Mabona and Van Vuuren [18] highlights the traditional use of Southern African medicinal plants in treating skin disorders, attributing their efficacy to bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, and phenolics, which possess anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and wound-healing properties. The therapeutic potential of herbal medicines in dermatology is well-documented, with numerous studies underscoring their effectiveness in managing skin conditions.

Vitale et al. [456] and Shubayr [457] emphasize that phytochemicals like flavonoids, alkaloids, and saponins enhance collagen synthesis, cell proliferation, and angiogenesis, accelerating wound repair. Among the most studied botanicals, Aloe spp. Contain over 75 bioactive compounds, including vitamins (A, C, E, B12), enzymes (amylase, catalase, peroxidase), minerals (zinc, copper, selenium), polysaccharides (glucomannans, polymannans), and polyphenols (anthraquinones), all of which contribute to skin hydration, regeneration, and anti-inflammatory effects [456,458]. Notably, Aloe polysaccharides show significant promise in tissue engineering due to their ability to promote cell proliferation and angiogenesis, making them valuable for regenerative medicine [459].

Psidium guajava is rich in photoprotective phenolics like flavonoids and tannins, without containing photosensitizing coumarins, making them suitable for sun protection [460]. Similarly, Zingiber officinale contains anthocyanins, which exhibit potent antioxidant and analgesic effects by inhibiting cyclooxygenases (COXs), lipoxygenases (LOXs), and nitric oxide synthase, thereby reducing skin inflammation and pain [461].

The root extract of Kigelia africana promotes wound healing through its glycosides (antimicrobial), phenolics/tannins (coagulation, antioxidant), and saponins (tissue repair). These compounds synergistically enhance inflammation control, cellular proliferation, collagen formation, and microbial defense, accelerating wound closure while preventing infection and oxidative damage, demonstrating their therapeutic potential in wound care [462,463].

Venkataravana et al. [464] study identified key phytocompounds in Citrullus lanatus (flavonoids, terpenes, lycopene, resveratrol, lignans, tannins, and indoles) via GC-MS analysis. These compounds exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties that support wound healing by enhancing angiogenesis, cell proliferation, and tissue remodeling, while also benefiting skin regeneration and managing inflammatory skin conditions [464].

Despite the promising pharmacological properties of these phytochemicals, further research is necessary to fully explore their mechanisms of action and validate their efficacy and safety in treating skin conditions. Given the complexity of plant-derived compounds, a thorough correlation between their phytochemistry and dermatological effects is essential. Therefore, consultation with healthcare professionals before using herbal remedies is strongly advised to ensure safe and practical application.

4. Conclusions

This review provides the first comprehensive synthesis of medicinal plants traditionally used in Zimbabwe for the treatment and management of skin conditions, drawing on both ethnobotanical data and pharmacological evidence. By identifying 93 plant species across diverse botanical families, the study reveals a rich, yet underexplored, pharmacopoeia rooted in indigenous knowledge systems. The findings underscore the significant role of traditional medicine in primary healthcare and emphasize the need for formal scientific validation of these plant-based therapies. In particular, the pharmacological profiles of many species demonstrating antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and wound-healing properties highlight their potential for developing affordable, culturally accepted treatments for common and chronic skin conditions. At the same time, toxicological assessments signal the importance of rigorous safety evaluation before wider clinical use. By consolidating scattered data and identifying priority species for further research, this study contributes meaningfully to the global discourse on ethnopharmacology and integrative dermatology. It also supports broader calls to preserve and promote indigenous health knowledge while guiding future pharmaceutical discovery efforts in Africa and beyond.

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge that the Midlands State University National Pathology Research and Diagnostic Centre provided technical support for this work.

Author Contributions

Elliot Nyagumbo, Trust Nyirenda, Cephas Mawere, Marvellous Matsheza: Conceptualization, writing – original draft, formal analysis, writing – review and editing. Elliot Nyagumbo, Cephas Mawere, Alfred M. Mutaramutswa, Donald T. Kapanga: Software, writing – review and editing. Elliot Nyagumbo, Cephas Mawere, Godwins Ngorima, Alfred M. Mutaramutswa: Methodology, writing – review and editing. Fabian Maunganidze, William Pote, Michael Bhebhe, Lucy Mabaya: Writing – original draft, writing – review and editing. All authors have read and approved the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

No funding.

Competing Interests

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Data Availability Statement

The data supporting this systematic review are from previously reported studies and datasets, which have been cited. The processed data are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Additional Materials

The following additional materials are uploaded at the page of this paper.

  1. Table S1: Detailed search strategy for three database searches.

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